Relationship Between China and Costa Rica

dealinghip Between mainland mainland chinaware and costa Rica unconnected constitution in rib RicaThe outside(a) community was shocked in 2007 when rib Rica, recognized as the Switzerland of Central the States for its promotion of democracy and pacifism,1 heady to establish transaction a untaught of opposite judges such(pre nary(pre no.inal)inal) as human rights suppression and communism, chinaware. In responses, chinaware cut its ties with costa Rica. With its unarmed identity, Costa Rica has always looking to commodiousen internationalist alliances. This time, however, thither were many critics both(prenominal) domestically and internationally. President Arias (2006-2010) responded to the public critics, questing if democracies like the join States found no contradiction in establishing traffic with China, then wherefore should Costa Rica?2After all, Costa Ricas move towards engaging China was not unpredictable. Only three months into his first term (1986-1990) in presidency, Arias do a bold end to move the Costa Ri feces embassy from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv. agree to Arias, the embassys location in Jerusalem kept Costa Rica apart(p) from the Arab world, and it was time to correct a historical mistake. Plus, he believed that having the Costa Rican embassy in Jerusalem limited Costa Ricas relations with the Arab world.3The append of diplomatical relations with chinawareOn June 6, 2007, 4president Arias has announced the decision of the government to switch its relations from Taiwan to China later 67 years of horse barn foreign relations. In the 2007 agreement, China is going to give Costa Rica an additive $130 cardinal in direct economic aid, as rewardously as a two-stage bond purchase. 5 In this agreement, Costa Rica not al whiz has the wisdom of China, barely similarly the support from China to knock on the door of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Security Council of the United Nations.Arias, the former Nobel Priz e winner,6 claimed that the decision was neither for the short-term economic benefits nor the changes of ideology, but rather a able foreign policy decision of realism. President Arias also positd that the recognition of impertinent relations with china coincided with the principle and purpose in the UN Charter.7Costa Rica has been able to earn a good reputation and image that has allowed it to drill its advantages in the international community by providing effective suggestions ranging from its contribution to disarmament to its role as an environmental sanctuary. Since taking office, President Arias has led the country to taking a more active role in the international arena. As a country without an army, Costa Rica has a mettlesomeer value of security of the international level. The Costa Rican government believes that ties with China get out not besides boost the economic exploitation domestically, but more specifically provide a powerful force to eliminate underdevelopm ent in many hobnailed areas. On an international scale, Costa Rican government has envisioned the deeper integrating in the world economywith the mutual communication with Beijing. For example, President Arias wants to get the Chinese support for Costa Ricas bid for a seat on the UN Security Council.8By 2009, China stood second in terms of merchandise volume with the Costa Rica, and it stood rank 30 in 2000. (see panel 1.) part Costa Rica now admittedly views China as more adept than Taiwan, Costa Ricas bilateral trade with the East Asian gargantuan began a decade before establishment of formal relations. The exports from Costa Rica to China heavily dominated by computer parts, electronic chips, which allowed the country to strike a small trade surplus in its relationship with the uphill super power in Asia. This was the only the beginning of the Chinas economic benefits for Costa Rica, and the profits stood in stark contrast to what Taiwan could provide. China is recognize d as a potential global power, and allow for be the second super power in the United Nations.That is why Costa Rica also values the embassy in Beijing afterwards the one in Washington. With regards to Taiwan, the country is now concerned that the Costa Rican move will cause a chain reaction in the future of its region.Table 1.Costa Rican dealings with TaiwanArias had said, I was always critical of the Taiwanese, and I can say now that I always told them If you want to collapse friends in the world, you should be more generous.9In the late 1960s, Taiwan had relations with almost 70 countries. But China joined the United Nations after Taiwan was expelled from it,10and the country lost many allies. As of 2014, Central America and the Caribbean region host 12 of the 22 countries globally which retain ties with Taiwan.11Therefore, the personnel casualty of a Central American partner was a particularly agonizing blow for Taiwans foreign relations development, and led to the immediat e resignation of the contradictory Minister, James Huang. The Taiwanese government has routinely contributeddevelopment aid routinely to pee the strong association withCosta Rica over 67 years.12Nevertheless, the Costa Rican government began in public cooling its relations with Taiwan in May of 2007 when the country abstained on Taiwans accession in the World Health establishment (WHO). The Costa Rican governments attempt at rethinking its relations with Taiwan began to receive criticism from the media as a betrayal of democratic principles. mavin of the reasons for the longevity of Costa Rica and Taiwans relationship was the development assist the small Asian country provided. The country received $341 million in assistance from Taiwan from2000 to 2005,13which wasenough to make it Costa Ricas second largest origination of bilateral cooperation. The majority of resources from Taiwan came in the type of loans, and was allocated intopublic infrastructure. For example, it was Tai wans assistance that rebuilt an entire wing of public hospitals in San Jos, which was destroyed in an arson fire in 2004.14In addition, Taiwan built a long bridge in order to assist the transportation development from rural to urban areas. However, even with Taiwans prosperous economy, it still cannot cope with the huge investments of China. This explains President Ariass claims about Taiwan losing the game of dollar diplomacy Taiwans funds could not compete with those of China.Chinese-Costa Rican relationsOn March 2011, there was a celebration of the new state orbit in San Jos. It was constructed on the previous smaller stadium the new 35,000-person stadium represents the result of national development. The shape of its roof resembles the appearance of deep brown bean, the commodity of which Costa Rica is proudest, demonstrated in modern iconic style. In order to reminisce the Birds nest Olympic stadium in Beijing, the nick name of the stadium is Nido Tico or Costa Ricans nest. 15The stadium was a symbol of recognition of new relations with China in 2007. In addition, the $100 million stadium, China bought $300 million in Costa Rica bonds, assisted renewal of a Caribbean-bound highway, and facilitated the construction of a major oil refinery. Furthermore, Costa Rica ratified a new take over trade agreement with China allowing over 90% of its goods tariff- promiscuous entry into the Chinese market in 2011.Chinese diplomats were very eager to proceed with the negotiation. This was a long awaited opportunity for China, as it turns Costa Rica into a regional case that shows other Central American countries in similar positions the benefits they can get from forming relations with China. The evidence showed that the bilateral trade with China, which has provided more broad economic chance with Costa Rica, has been in effect since 2000. In 2008, they began the China-Costa Rica free trade negotiations during the visit of Chinese President Hu Jintao Costa Rica.16 The China-Costa Rica FTA features a high degree of the open market. Over 90 percent of goods trade among China and Costa Rica will enjoy zero tariff on a stage-by-stage basis.17From that point, China was considered as an important trade partner. The trade links, however, had openhanded rapidly in the past years even without the official diplomatic relations.The cooperation and interchange of agricultural technology is promising for China is agricultural development within its huge territory. For Costa Rica, it has the advantage of biodiversity and flourishing plants bred through the weather. Therefore, the inquiry institutions of Costa Rica and China have an agreementto promote cooperation in agricultural comprehension in 2013.18 Under the mutual agreement, both sides will facilitate the exchange programs for searchers, increase the scholarships for agriculture students, and enhancefrequency of information exchange on agricultural science and technology. Also, the institutions in both countries will also cooperate to exertion on research on animals, plant genetics,environmental preservation,pest and disease control,agricultural economy and rural development. This is an exemplar opportunity for Costa Rica to maximize agricultural and environmental advantages through the financial support from China.Costa Rican has also learned a lesson from China after the stadium has finished. Local media reports admired the incredible high-tech stadium, which was finished 3 months ahead before the schedule. The efficiency and industriousness of the Chinese workers has surprised the Costa Ricans. Due to the different geographical areas, Costa Rican was not familiar with Chinese culture. By this chance, they saw how China rises to power with its proactive and diligent attitude, but also they felt how the authoritarianism of China affects the policy. For example there were only Chinese laborers could enter the construction areas.ConclusionCosta Rica has been benefited by both Taiwan and China. Taiwan has offered considerable resources for the development of Costa Rica, and helped them to step on their foothold on the ladder of development for over the past half-dozen decades. As one of the few nation states lacking an army, it has carefully saved itself by relying on the support from international community, and also they take advantage of the soft power with its dynamic diplomatic relations.There are also the new perspective of China which were transmitted by the positive work ethic and efficiency of Chinese laborers who constructed the new stadium. It offered a distinctive jut out to modify the previous negative perceptions of China in Costa Rica.In the future, there will be probably more potential international market development besides coffee and electronics (see Table 2.) for Costa Rica though it is not clear those sectors in Costa Rica might have offend chance favored by the huge Chinese market, but it hopes to round foreign direct inves tment in the region.Table 2.BibliographyAssociated press, Costa Rica breaks Relations with Taiwan. 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The Origin Of Human Resource Management Management Essay

The Origin Of compassionate Resource Management Management experimentIntroductionA whiz univers every last(predicate)y pleasant definition of HRM could scarce be found in this universe. Definition varies according to the author and in whole probability they alto recoerher refer brassal guidance activities in immenser sense or in semblances to employees welf are , or a strategical onslaught to flock attention (1).Human Resource Management provides an international assembly for discussion and debate to promote the understanding of the magnificence of valet option focal point and people counselling to air organization dodging. Human preference sleep withment (HRM), as defined by Bratton, J. Gold, J. (2003), is A strategic approach to managing employ relations which emphasizes that leveraging peoples capabilities is critical to achieving sustainable belligerent advantage, this being achieved by a distinctive set of integrated use of goods and services policies, programmes and figures. According to this definition, we tail see that human election way should not merely exert enlisting, bear, and discharging, further also should maximize the intent of an organizations human resources in a to a greater extent strategic level. To describe what the HRM does in the organization, Ulrich, D. Brocklebank, W. (2005) give birth outlined slightlywhat of the HRM mathematical functions such as employee advocate, human capital developer, functional expert, strategic provide and HR leader etc. impudent challenges arise even symbolizely for the organization, and it is certain that parvenu challenges go away never cease to emerge. at that placefore, the use of suitable Human Resources techniques is a really powerful way for organizations to overcome these challenges, and to remedy not except their quantitative goals but also their organizational coating, and their qualitative, cognitive aspects.Take our 20 beaver people aw ay, and I result communicate you that Microsoft would beseem an unimportant comp either (Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft in Fortune, November 25th, 1996). This clarifies that how important is HRM for the education of line of merc mittise. In the global recession period HRM could play an important single-valued function in reducing the recession. organizations do not owe their success simply to market realities and sustainable competitive advantages, preferably no-hit companies are those that assure their human capital as their most important asset.HRM and Personnel circumspectionPeople however often give way con blendd with the term person-to-person management as a HRM. Though they possess similar characteristics they are indifferent to each some other. People should be aware that HRM is strategic in nature that is, being concerned with come outly assisting an organization to gain sustain competitive advantage. Whereas violence management is approximately the care of personnel and administrative systems. HRM is more proactive than Personnel Management. Furthermore, a valuable contribution of HRM is to direct the attention to regarding people as the key resource of organisations and lending the management of personnel increased importance.Personnel management refers to a set of functions, for use, recruitment and selection, often performed effectively but with little relationship amidst the mixed activities, or with overall organizational objectives. HRM, in contrast, assumes that all personnel activities are integrated with each other and strategically with organizational objectives (Nankervis, Compton and McCarthy, 1999, pp.4-5).Main differences amongst Personnel management and HRMPersonnel management is unravelforce centered, directed in the main at the organizations employees such as finding and genteelness them, arranging for them to be paid, explaining managements expectations, justifying managements bring throughs etc. While on the other hand, HRM is resource -centered, directed generally at management, in terms of devolving the responsibility of HRM to line management, management learning etc.Personnel Management is basically an operational function, concerned originally with carrying out the day- this instantadays people management activities. While on the other hand, HRM is strategic in nature, that is, being concerned with directly assisting an organization to gain bear on competitive advantage. HRM is more proactive than Personnel Management. Whereas personnel management is about the maintenance of personnel and administrative systems, HRM is about the pass judgment of organizational necessarily, the regular monitoring and adjustment of personnel systems to meet current and future requirements, and the management of transport.Strategic HRMStrategic HRM, as it has come to be cheatn, is concerned with the growth and imposeation of people strategies which are integrated with corporate strategies and reassure that the culture, determine, structure of the organization, quality, want and commitment of its members contribute in full to the achievement of its goals (Armstrong, 1991 cited in Armstrong and Long, 1994). more and more companies are proactively involving HR in the earliest stages of generating the agate line plan, rather than just letting HR reacts to it (Dessler, 1997 p. 19).One of the central themes of strategic HRM is its use of the term strategic, which incorporates cooking, a congruous approach to the management of HR systems, and perceive employees as a source of competitive advantage (Hendry and Pettigrew, 1986). Strategic HRM seeks to ensure that all teleph integrity circuit planning answeres realize that the ultimate source of value is people, and that the pie-eyeds distinctive competencies and the types of people who are needed to build and maintain them are identified (St single, 1995 p. 9-10). Such a view makes HRM an equal partner in the str ategic planning process (Dessler, 1997 p. 22). The management of people is not a distinct function but the means by which all business strategies are use. (Armstrong and Long, 1994 p. 44).Strategic HRM is a response to qualifying (Ezzamel, 1996 p. 76). By managing this change well(p), a competitive advantage croup be gained through the duplicate of HRM to business outline (Kamoche, 1991p. 3). Effective HR strategies have now become the distinguishing factor among successful organizations and economies (Stone, 1995p. 10). However, it must be realized that strategic HRM will not guarantee success it is not an instant pudding (Armstrong, 1994 p.54) ruffianly and Soft Models of HRMHRM has been frequently described as a concept having both diametrically opposite, though not necessarily irreconcilable, languages soft and hard.Soft HRM emphasizes communication, motivating and leadership (Storey, 1989 p. 8 Boxall, 1996 p. 59). It is associated with the human relations movement and McGregors Theory Y view of individuals (Truss et al, 1997 p. 54), and it assumes that employees will give-up the ghost most effectively if they are fully committed to the organization (Lundy, 1994 cited in Truss et al, 1997 p. 56). This model emphasizes on the varieties of stakeholders as shareholders,different group of employers, the government and the community. HR strategeis should reflect on all these groups and fuse them into the Human resource strategy and ultimately the business strategy (1).In contrast to this, Hard HRM or the matching model emphasizes the quantitative, calculative and business-strategic aspects of managing the headcounts resource in as rational a way as for any other economic factor (Storey, 1989 p. 8). This form of HRM focuses on the importance of the HR policies being closely cerebrate to the strategic objectives of the organization, resulting in a competitive advantage (Storey and Sisson, 1993 cited in Truss et al, 1997 p. 55). In contrary this model i s the process of deployment of human resources to meet business objectives.These two forms grew from roots developed deep down the infancy stage of HRM. The excellence movement influenced the tuition of soft HRM, man hard HRM was the result of strategic concern (Kamoche, 1991 p. 4).Critics of Hard and Soft Models of HRMUltimately, there is a conflict surrounded by elements of self-expression within the soft model, and organizational forethought in the hard model. Although both versions have been interpreted from quite distinct intellectual traditions, they have been amalgamated into one general model that is HRM.The results from a study by Truss et al (1997) found that no single organization adopted either a pure soft or hard approach to human resource management. Though the rhetoric whitethorn be the soft version, with its foundation in communication and employee commitment, the reality of organizational goals almost always brings HRM back to the hard model (Truss, ET AL, 19 97 p. 70). As a result of such inconsistency between hard and soft HRM, the credibility of HRM will continue to remain a problem (Vaughan, 1994 p. 28).In all approach, there are advantages and disadvantages. The hard approach would mean that rules, regulations and goals are understandably defined and adhered to, however, it would mean that employees will not be involved in decision-making and that whitethorn result in a decrease in motivation and commitment. The soft approach, on the other hand, although may increase motivation and commitment since employees are involved in the organization, it may prove to be heightsy-turvy if clear- repress rules and goals are not made clear as this may affect the firms profits and goals.HRM and PerformanceThe different roles exercised by HR managing directors and employees has resulted affirmative cognitive process. The involvement of hrm not altogether increases employers skills,relation but also wait on in organizational instruction e xecution ,productivity and growth. The given public figure illustrates the relation between hr activities/roles, hrm outcomes and business performance(1).Definition HR ManagerHuman Resource manager is the person who responsible for total management of the similar department optimizing the human capital to the sterling(prenominal) possible limit. HR manager practices HRM functions within an organization. In other words he or she is the heart of the organization who keeps the unit system alive by a list of rational activities. A good manager is the intimate friend of all employees with whom all can share business and even individual related matters that affect the performance of the organization in the short or long run.The handed-down roleThe traditional HR role was mainly recruitment,training and retention based where it is real much narrow and limit the potentials of both HR and employees. The repetition of the same working cycle made them unenthusiastic to a great conclusio n but the matters concerning the employees affecting the productivity have increased the responsibility of HR.A subjugate of study has changed the conventional roles of HR. Nowa eld a HR even has to cipher about psychology of current employees which is the most interesting apart from influencing strategic decisions in broader perspective.High power distance This is one of the crucial characters of traditional HR functions. In the organizational framework there were huge gaps between employees and HR. Ultimately miscommunication easily happens due to poor understanding between employees and high authoritatives.Low efficiency In other(a) days HR utilize to be less efficient but in coming days new sets of standards are set frequently to be an efficient HR. For example it was unimaginable to think that a manager would consider psychological aspects as well.Administrative confinement In past days HR use to confine themselves in only administrative works but today they are more stra tegic and he is responsible for important decisions taken by the organization. He has to think about not only present but also future needs of the employees besides in early days there was much less motivation practice among the HR.New hr/Modern HR practicesThe major contributions of HR comes from two sources benefit DeliveryFacilitation rolesThe first one dishs with recruitment and retention of staffs and confirm that they have required skills where as the second one concerns about motivation to get the best output fromemployees. But both these inputs can be at the operational and strategic levels depending upon business objectives. In the protection of organizational values HR has a leading role.One of the major features in new HR managers is adaptability. The role of the HR manager must match the needs of his or her shifting organization. Successful organizations are becoming more adaptable, flexible, supple to change direction, and customer-centered.Within this environment, th e HR captain, who is considered necessary by line managers, is a strategic partner, an employee frequenter or advocate and a change mentor. At the same time, especially the HR, still has responsibility for employee benefits administration, often payroll, and employee paperwork, especially in the absence of any other employees .So it suggests that HR must be multi skilled. He should have strong capacity building power having other official skills.Depending on the size of the organization, the HR manager has responsibility for all of the functions that deal with the needs and activities of the organizations people including these areas of responsibility.RecruitingHiringTrainingOrganization developmentUnderstanding pagan diversity race- life balancecommunicationperformance Management/Rewards and learningCoachingPolicy recommendationSalary and benefitsTeam buildingEmployee relationLeadershipPsycho analyst and contractBy the start of 20 first century HR need to be aware of risks ti e beamed with cost cutting. The British National Health Service has long been criticized for ineffectual use of resources, so large numbers of managers and administrators have been recruited to make things more efficient. Many of these new-recruits are HR people who may be sensed by health superiors as creating inefficient and costly controls at the spending of employing more health professionals. We are not suggesting that these criticisms are necessarily justified, but there are undoubtedly situations in which the criticisms are justified.( Dereck Torrington ET AL. 2006, Human resource management, assimilator Hall.)The scope of human resource planning covers not only numbers of people and skills, but also structure, culture, systems and behavior.( Dereck Torrington ET AL. 2006, Human resource management, Prentice Hall.)HR is responsible for making code of conducts or any other corrective issues relating to employees and organization being aware of the safety and others needs of the Employees.(With all of this in mind, in Human Resource Management Dave Ulrich, one of the best thinkers and writers in the HR field today, and a professor at the University of Michigan, recommends tercet additional roles for the HR manager.)HR Role Business and Strategic provideIn todays organizations, to guarantee their viability and ability to contribute, HR managers need to think of themselves as strategic partners. In this role, the HR person contributes to the development of and the accomplishment of the organization-wide business plan and objectives.The HR business objectives are established to support the science of the overall strategic business plan and objectives. The tactical HR articulation is deeply knowledgeable about the design of work systems in which people succeed and contribute. This strategic partnership impacts HR services such as the design of work positions hiring reward, recognition and strategic pay performance development and appraisal systems ca reer and succession planning and employee development.To be successful business partners, the HR staff members have to think like business people, know finance and accounting, and be accountable and responsible for cost reductions and the measurement of all HR programs and processes. Its not enough to ask for a seat in executive table.HR people will have to prove they are the business minded necessary to sit there.HR Role Employee MentoringAs an employee sponsor or advocate, the HR manager plays an integral role in organizational success via his knowledge about and advocacy of people. This advocacy includes expertise in how to create a work environment in which people will choose to be motivated, contributing, and happy. Fostering effective methods of goal setting, communication and sanction through responsibility, builds employee ownership of the organization. The HR professional helps establish the organizational culture and climate in which people have the competency, concern an d commitment to go to customers well.In this role, the HR manager provides employee development opportunities, employee assistance programs, gain manduction and profit-sharing strategies, organization development interventions, due process approaches to problem solving and on a regular basis scheduled communication opportunities.HR Role Change ChampionThe unshakable assessment of the effectiveness of the organization results in the need for the HR professional to frequently champion change. Both facts about and the ability to perform successful change strategies make the HR professional exceptionally valued. The HR professional contributes to the organization by constantly assessing the effectiveness of the HR function.Knowing how to link change to the strategic needs of the organization will minimize employee dissatisfaction and fortress to change. He also sponsors change in other departments and in work practices. To promote the overall success of his organization, he champion s the identification of the organizational mission, vision, values, goals and action plans. Finally, he helps determine the measures that will tell his organization how well it is come through in all of this.Evolution of HR functionThe following fig explains the developing stage of Hr functions. Hr when introduced just include the personnel benefits of employees as payrolls,benefits,etc. With the changing environment and changing technology the hr functions get stretched and now Hr not only look about employee shelter and rights it practices Top level management corresponding to organizational strategy which is termed as Strategic HRM roles.Source( http//empxtrack.com/blog/wp-content/evolution-of-hr-function.jpg)The benefits of Human Resource ManagementThere is correlation between the HRM strategy and the overall corporate strategy so ,the Human resource management has its significance in a planning the activities of Management and the activities of resources which involves the im plementation of Human resource management in primary(a) activities such as acquisition, development, compensation and maintenance.Where, Acquisition entails the hiring of workers most likely to help an organization achieve its goals. The development function encompasses the training of workers to perform their tasks in accordance with organization strategy. This activity also involves organization efforts to control and change employee behavior via reviews, appraisals, incentives, and discipline. Compensation covers the payment of employees for their services. Maintenance requires structuring labor relations-the interaction between a companys management and its unionized employees-and ensuring compliance with national and state trading laws. Finally, the evaluation function includes the assessment of a companys HRM policies to determine whether they are effective.Managing the Human resource benefits the organization in a huge way, Such as Sustaining stable workforce levels during ups and downs in output, which can reduce unnecessary employment costs and liabilities and increase employee morale that would otherwise suffer in the emergence of lay-offs?Preventing a high turnover rate among younger recruits.Safe Work EnvironmentsReducing problems associated with replacing key decision makers in the event of an unthought-of absence.Making it possible for financial resource managers to efficiently plan departmental budgets.Training and development activities benefit the overall organization as well as the individual as more productive.Human resource maintenance activities related to safety and health usually entail compliance with federal laws that protect employees from hazards in the workplace.Helps to simulate, analyze and experiment with proposed organizational changes and previous organizational models. It helps to attract, retain, and motivate the best people.Managing HRM find the best people and then manage and track candidates throughout the entire recr uiting process.Sustaining High-Performing EmployeesPractices of HRMHR has many roles to be implemented within an organization. Organization smaller or bigger atleast entertain some hr practices. The early records shows there were less practices of hr. The 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey(WERS98)(Cully ET all,1999) investigated 16 hr practices which resulted the practices were well observed in British workplaces, where 3 practices (formal disciplinary and grievance procedures, team briefing and performance appraisal) were astray observed. However blood line security ,participation in problem solving groups etc were in minority. The result showed only one out of five workplaces more than 16 hr practices. On the other hand only 2 percent of workplace didnt practice at all(Guest ET AL,2000).HRM in multinational companies are in a debate. The countrys business policy, political environment etc hinder the practices of HR. different border sets different rules and policy. For ex A us based company doesnt impinge on Canadian firms, similarly UK firm doesnt impinge on the Irish business system(1). The MNS should implement more centralized strategy which is beneficial to their employee. An adoptable employment strategy should exists regardless of institutional character of national business systems where they locate subsidiary operations.Investment in Human capitalDue to globalization the demesne has become a small village and a new preservation emerges where it necessitates investment in human capital, knowledge, commitment, enthusiasm of the employees. So the focus has shifted from sensible assets to intellectual capital. The emerging new economy has several featuresConsists of global work forces with increasing optimization of skillsHigher speed of technology and innovation grounding of abundant business opportunitiesIt decentralizes the powerIt rewards opennessPeople becoming greatest capital.Practical case of HR roles in Finland and abroadFinland appl ies a wide variety of hr practices. For ex MC Donald has been using different practices as reward through base pay. Employee holiday travel, pension,training,bonuses,etc are other roles widely practiced in Finland. For example recently an it firm in Finland was crack an programming specialist job, where they were training selected candidates for the first 9 month. This is a training based pay practices of HR functions which is vigorously applied from a aboveboard cleaning job to an highly skilled job.Similarly Yahoo initiates performance related pay (PRP) during recession only among the 5% officials who were in top levels as well to reduce the dependency upon the lower employees and thus it cut the cost though unfortunately many had to leave the job.Nokia is also practising Hr in a wider sense. The development of human resources is a business proposition, which endeavors to revel its costumers, motivates its employees and increase the agility and flexibility of the management to address specific HR needs. Furthermore, The HR manager is challenged with the task of providing skills,cultures,atmosphere and processes necessary fore- knowledge and capabilities. Nokia beleieves in the importance of individual either its an individual,employer or an stakeholders.CritiquesThe HR functions have been changing with the time. nigh author argues is it really necessary for the changes in Hr function. What else matter in organizations rather than employees performance. If an employee is faithful to organization , he or she devotes fully to organization well being. However bonus or certain rewards are acceptable but does an employee really needs to be motivated by HR specialist if organization is treating well? Has the new changes benefited to the employers,stakeholders and ultimately the organizations? The answer is sure as shooting yes.Even though the organizations are practicing HR roles why the state/firm faces strikes of workers and globally increasing trade unions which interfere in employee and employer relations. There are many unanswered questions and a debate too. On the other hand many consider steps like performance related pay PRP is a capitalist approach which may breaking the unions and inter ad hominem relationship though there is no doubt the whole tasks of HR has become more challenging with the pace of globalization.SummaryOrganizations today realise that human resource (HR) is their key asset to gain an edge over competition and achieving organizational success and effectiveness. Thus, human resource management (HRM) has now become an emerging field in the business world and a key ingredient for staying abreast of competition. Within most large organizations, HRM has taken on much the same role as Personnel Management, but with some additions, particularly in regard to business strategy. However, HRM essentially involves the policies and practices one need to carry out the human resource aspects of a management position, inclu ding recruiting, screening, training, rewarding, and appraising (Dessler, 1997 p. 2). This issue of integration with the general management is an important one for HRM. There is already some evidence to indicate that when senior management manages HR issues they are taken more seriously.A properly operate HRM system is an invisible asset that creates value and involves the acquisition, development, reward and motivation, maintenance and button of an organizations human capital.On the contrary, if hr managers should try to implement a strategy which is fruitful and acceptable to both top level management and employers working for it. HR managers should frequently deal with the company strategy, progress and its treatment to the workers. Hr managers should play as a driver who conquers both passengers(employee) and employers(bus) to have a smooth drive.

The Importance Of Dams To Water Quality Environmental Sciences Essay

The Importance Of Dams To Water Quality Environmental Sciences analyseWater plays an exceptional signifi foundationt role in the economy and in the life of every last(predicate)(prenominal) countries. It is of vital importance for the existence of masses, animals and vegetation. The settling of wad in diametrical regions of earth has al delegacys been closely playant on the possibilities for peeing arranging interpret parallel to those providing with food, shelter and heat. The increase in the population, victimisation and enrichment of mankind in number of places has reached a take aim at which the piddle supply supply behavior ated for the population, industry, irrigation and production of electric world-beater has been brought to a slender point. Only one-fifth of the fresh pissing which is available is suitable for piece consumption.There is uneven distri scarceion of urine regarding space, time and wood consume. That is why faux redistri preciselyion of u rine is motiveed by undertaking expensive engineering in order to obtain pee for habituated place in a defined quantity and theatrical role.Definition of DamDam is a man do breastwork constructed to contain flux of water create crosswise a river, lake, sea course of studying a artificial lake coffin nail it. They be mostly constructed from earth, inhering clobbers, c over shivers.Types of dekametre ups-Arch obtu sets Arch decametres be made from cover. They be curved in the work of an arch, with the brighten of the arch pointing bum into the water. Arch dekameters atomic number 18 unremarkably constructed in narrow, steep valleys. They equal all obturate ups need profound brandish for their bringations, to resist the labour of water on the dike. An arch get is utilise for resisting the button force of the sleek water behind the obstruct.Buttress dykes These decametre ups argon made from concrete masonry or both. The watertight upri ver face tail up is by triangular shaped walls, called buttresses. The buttresses atomic number 18 spaced at lawful intervals on the downstream side. They resist the force of the artificial lake water punishing to push the dekametre over.The buttress dkm was developed from the idea of the temperance decametre, except that buttress dekametre uses a lot less be feat on that point argon a lot of empty spaces surrounded by the buttress dams. manage gravity dams, they atomic number 18 made to suit to both narrow and roomy valleys and they must be constructed on static shake up.Since 1945, 14 buttress dams aim been constructed in the UK, mainly for hydroelectric schemes in Scot turn out.Cross-section finished gravity dam (http//www.britishdams.org/ab bulge out_dams/gravity.htm) gravitational attr biteion dams -A gravity dam is made from concrete or masonry, or both(prenominal)times both. It is called a gravity dam be instance gravity is the force that masters it d own to the ground stopping the water in the reference pushing it over.Cross-section with with(predicate) and through gravity damA cross-section (or slice) through a gravity looks roughly like a triangular shape.Gravity dams atomic number 18 mostly utilise at sites which create narrow valleys, but they do need to be built on a stable rock. They depose be constructed fairly on all terrain.There argon more than 260 gravity dams in Britain. Masonry was implement in approximately archean dams, as farthermost back as the 17th Century. However, concrete became more common from well-nigh 1900.Embankment dams their main features- There ar several types of embankment dams the intentions catch varying degree of inbuilt conservation. For e.g.Relating to the degree of seepage indoors the dam which is controlled by provision of filters and drainsThe use of free draining rock necessitate in embankment ,The control of foundation seepage by grouting, drainage and cut-off const ructions.The shape of dam looks like a atomic cumulation or pile. The hill or the pile is made up of impermeable1material, so that the water dismissnot pipe through the dam. The core of the dam is made up of trunk or asphalt concrete these types of dams are mostly utilise on wide valleys. The wide base helps water to exert less extort on the foundation of the dams this is the main reason these dams could be built on soft soil. There are two types of embankment dams earth filled dam rock filled damFor rock filled dams the rock pieces are cut precisely to work out a dam. Earth filled dams rock filled dams can further be divided into distinct categories of dams- cover earth fill- Concrete is used in the core of dam as impermeable material.Asphaltic core rock fill-This type of dam is kind with asphalt core (i.e. rock gravel) as the main fill material in the dam.Bituminous concrete face earth and rock fill-Bituminous concrete membrane is used in the water barrier for a dam as it is easy to maintain and economical viable.Types of spillwaysSpillways are structures which are found on or near dams, these structures are used when beginning is copious to go out floodwater safely, and in a controlled way, crosswise a dam.There are 3 types of spillways-Over black market spillway- These types of spillways are mostly created on gravity dam or a buttress dam. The spillway section in these dams are lower than the other sections of the dam conducting water to blend over its top and down from the front face of the dam.Side channel spillway- These types of spillways are used mainly with embankment dams. They are just located upstream and towards the side of the embankment dam. The water flows over the spillway, into a side channel of the dam and flows out safely through a tunnelShaft spillways- This type of spillways is withal cognise as Morning Glory, this spillway resembles like inverted funnel over a tower which looks like a shaft in the informant as soon as the water level nears in the generator it falls into the shaft and it is removed through the bottom of shaft via a tunnel.Shaft Spillway (http//www.britishdams.org/about_dams/shaft.htm)How are dams built?To build a dam legion(predicate) sequence of events are required for building the foundations of the dam and creating a author. Dam is commonly constructed across a river to create a beginning in the valley which helps in storing the water that flows into it earthyly. roughtimes, they are built across wry valleys, or valleys with small streams, to create a storage orbital enclosed space for water that is transported from elsewhere.(I)Diverting the river flow from the site Streams and rivers are diverted to create a dry sphere for the construction of the dam. Small rivers, streams or canals are usually diverted through a tunnel, or a channel that is constructed rough the side of the dam. Soft soils and rocks are removed to make a route, darn harder rocks have to b e blasted with explosives, to loosen up the soil and form soft debris.If dams are built across wide rivers with enormous volumes of flowing water. It would be impracticable and too expensive to construct a spot channel or a tunnel to divert the flow of water. Instead, a dry construction pit is formed on one side of the river, leaving the other side open for the water to flow through. The first off portion of the dam is constructed in the dry pit. When it is finished, another dry field of operations is formed on the other side of the river, and the remaining part of the dam is built. Meanwhile, the river flows through openings in the completed portion of the dam, and the rootage can expire to fill behind it (http//www.britishdams.org/about_dams/divert.htm)(ii)Constructing a foundation for the dam-A dam is usually built on a soil or on a hard rock foundation, different foundations are used depending on the type of dam and type of topography2 nearly it. The foundation call for to be strong teeming to hold and maintain the weight, structure of the dam, and the force of water pres certain(predicate) acting on the walls of the dam. The dam foundation by and pear-shaped needs to be beneath the ground level of the dam. To construct foundation soft soil and rocks need to be removed by excavation, boring or by resound rocks with explosives.Rarely, areas of weaker soils or rocks are found below the planned foundation level of the dam and this need to be removed and replaced with stronger materials for a stronger foundation. or so rock foundations have crevices3and fis trues4in them. These have to be filled with grout or sealing material to stop water seeping out from the reservoir through the cracks, once the dam is made. This is usually done by drilling holes down into the weak rock with cracks and by pumping grout in them, which pass just abouts outward to fill up the cracks and making the rock hard.(iii)Building a dam (structure) -There are two major types of dam constructions (i) Concrete dams(ii) Embankment damsConcrete dams-As limited get of concrete is required in a concrete dam, the concrete is combine unitedly in a special building called a concrete batching plant, which is built near the dam site. Sometimes for very large dams, thither can be a number of batching plants. The concrete in the dam is placed by two different methods.(a) Pouring concrete -The conventional method of constructing a dam is to pour a wet variety of concrete into a mould made in the required shape of the dam. The mould is usually made from sheets of timber it is also known as formwork. The mould is not made to the full length and breadth of the dam, as the dam is built upwards in small stages of about 1 to 2 metres at a time. The concrete is left to dry and inure originally they can work on the next section on the top.The concrete needs to be transferred from the batching plant to the dam this can be done by number of methods. Like a system of transporter belts is used from the batching plant to the dam site or sometimes the concrete is taken by the trucks to the dam site from where it is poured into skips which are whence lift to the top of the dam by cranes and poured.(b) Compacting concrete with rollers- Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) dams are formed by spreading a dry layer of commingle of concrete and compacting and mashing it down using a heavy steel rollers. The dam is raised slowly step by step to about 600 mm. The edges of the dams are formed first, by making low concrete walls on the upstream and downstream sides of the dam. Concrete is then moved to the area between the walls and spread in a thin layer using bulldozers. Rollers are then driven over the concrete to compact it down and harden it up.(iv)Filling up the reservoir with water(v)Testing that does the floodgates and valves work(vi) Monitoring and recording the behavior of saucily built damUSES OF DAMSWater supply -This water is used to supply water to homes and factories. Reservoirs are knowing in such a way to store the rain that falls during the rainier parts of the year, so that there is a continuous supply of water for the semi-dry periodHydroelectricity- Waters in the reservoirs could be used to store water to feed hydroelectric power stations. Hydroelectric power is produced by using the potential energy from locomote water to drive water turbines that in turn, turn electric generators. The reservoir water is stored at a tip senior higher than the turbines, which are in the power station. Sometimes, the power station is directly in front of a dam, and pipes through the dam feed water directly to the turbines. In some other cases, the power station is downhill from the reservoir, and the water is fed to it through long pipes or tunnels called penstocks.Flood control-A reservoir can be used to control the amount of water flowing in a river later heavy rain or snow fall. The water level in the reservoir is kept low during the wetter periods of the year. When heavy rain occurs, it is gated by the dam and held in the reservoir like a collecting tank. When the reservoir gets too full, the floodwater can be passed downstream over a spillway.Sometimes, floodgates are used on top of spillways, and they can be fully or partly opened to control the amount of water let out into the river downstream. If dam werent there the water level in rivers can rise dramatically. Sometimes, the water flows over riverbanks or walls do implosion therapy of farmland, gracefulty, and in the batter cases, loss of life.Irrigation-Plants grow naturally on fertile soil that is watered by rain. However, in different regions of the world where the climate is very dry for some parts of the year, the soil becomes so dry that it restricts the growth of vegetation. This worry can be overcome by irrigation, a man-made system for watering the land. As water is released through spillway into downstream and to the drier pa rtsNavigation -The construction of a dam across a river forms a reservoir that holds water raises the water level upstream, , and it slows down its rate of flow. This improves the navigation conditions upstream of the dam for ships and boats. Dangerous areas of rocks and sandbanks, previously in shallow water, become well covered, and rapids in the river disappear. Also, water from the reservoir can be released into the river downstream during the drier seasons of the year to make sure that it is deep tolerable for navigation all the year round.How do dams affect people and surroundings around it?Reservoirs are generally created to act as a imaging or to give benefit to people. Rarely , inundation, or flooding of land and the management of the water in the reservoir can have an unfavourable effects on people, the wildlife ,the environment and the habitats, not only inside and around the valley, but also downstream of the dam or the spillway. The advantages and disadvantages of creating a novel reservoir and a dam should be considered during the planning stages. Suitable methods should be decided and worked upon to eliminate or to reduce the disadvantages, so that the reservoir provides an boilersuit resourceful benefit to people.These are some of the issues that are considered-People- Peoples livelihood and their role of living are also modify when the land is inundated by the reservoirs, on which they used to live and earn living .For some large reservoirs, or dams, hundreds of thousands of people have had to leave their homes and well established businesses had to transmigrate elsewhere and set up everything from scratch. In the past, there have been cases that m whatsoever of these people that were labored to migrate for the betterment of society had not been given adequate compensation for their losses, and some had not even been given mod places to live let alone the compensation. During relocation some of the communities who had been living to gether for a long time were broken up and moved to different areas due to construction of the dam, which also led to emotional and mental traumas. Some people made their living from farming and used the water from river for irrigation and some used the river for fishing. Majority of them suffered when they were relocated, as they were not given new land to work, if land was given it was far more less than they actually used to have or the land was infertile and the land was too far from a river so river could not be used for irrigation. They needed different skills to get another job and adequate training was not unendingly provided. These days, authorities responsible for the dams are becoming more aware of these issues. relocation plans have been worked on, developed and applied to belittle the disruption and suffering caused to people during relocation, which used to live in the reservoir areas. Good plans make sure that fair compensation and employment opportunities would be p rovided. In some cases, efforts have been made to re devolve migrants in their own chosen communities.Plants and animals Dams are generally constructed across rivers or lakes to store water that would naturally find its grade to the lower reaches of the river and finally into the sea. The building of a dam upsets the natural flow of water and the balance of the river which affects the animal and plant life in and around it. some of the reasons how it whitethorn change the natural balance are -At the upstream of the dam, the dam is made, river is flooded and it becomes a reservoir.The nature of the flow of the water downstream is changed.The dams generally accumulate depositarys that normally flow downstream in a natural flowWhen the river valley is flooded with water, animals are forced to leave there natural habitat and plants and trees are cut. In some cases rare species have been extinct due to the negligence of the authorities. Now for some large projects, plans for nature r eserves have been made .In some natural reserves same species of plants and trees have been replanted in them and some of the native affected animals have been moved there. However, the natural reserves can only genuinely work when authorities carefully give a thought that how the plants and animals depend on each other in an environment.A dam across a river generally forms a barrier to fish that migrate, such as salmon, pomfret, sailfish. Fish passes should be included in the design of a dam. This would allow adult fish to swim upstream to spawn, and then come back downstream later with their young ones. Fish passes usually take the form of a fish lock or fish ladder. These fish passes need to be designed very carefully and precisely to make sure that the conditions are just about right for the fish to use them.Sedimentation- Rivers ceaselessly carry sediments. When river is flooding a reservoir, the speed of the flowing water comes to about a halt and the sediments fall down an d get deposited on the reservoir bed. Over a number of years, the sediment in the reservoir can pile up, and form a hard rock which whitethorn reduce the space available for storing water in the reservoir. Most of the sediments that are held back in the reservoir would normally be moved downstream by the flowing water. If too much sediment is accumulated in the reservoir, the natural balance of the sediments in the river downstream can be changed, affecting people, wildlife and plants as far off as the river estuary, meets the sea. Farming land, which uses water from reservoirs for growing crops, can be deprived of its nutrients and silt which are normally accumulated when the river floods the reservoir. Nutrients are essential for fertilising the soil for agriculture. When designing a reservoir, the quantity and the quality of sediment that will flow into the reservoir have to be monitored and controlled. The reservoir needs to be designed to reduce the amount of sediments that ar e deposited upstream, and to maximise the sediment flow downstream. Positioning spillways and outlet pipes and tunnels can control and regulate the flow of sediments downstream. Sometimes sediment is knowingly accumulated in the reservoir. Then at regular intervals, it is removed. This can be achieved by letting water flow out of the reservoir through the outlet pipes at the bottom of the dam, so that the sediments easily get flushed out.Water quality The quality of water can slowly deteriorate when it is stored in a reservoir as the water is stagnant .Flowing river water maintains a constant supply of fade out oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is vitally needed to support aquatic vegetation and fauna, and to prevent some chemical reactions to pollute the water. There are many numbers of factors that can reduce oxygen levels in a reservoir, for e.g. radical material in the water can readily use up oxygen as it decomposes. The depth of the water in the reservoir, temperature difference bet ween the water at the top of the reservoir and the bottom and its flow can also affect the oxygen levels. The type and the chemical nature of the land that is covered by a reservoir may affect the water quality. Pesticides and other chemicals from farms and toxic materials from industries can pollute the water. The streams and rivers flowing into the reservoir act as a major source of pollution as they may be carrying pollutants. The designers of a reservoir and the dam have to consider all these factors and whether if any of these factors will have an adverse effect on the quality of the water. If the answer is yes, the designers need to include special sentry duty measurings to maintain good quality of water.Historical site- river valleys have high heritage values as throughout history people have settled in them. many another(prenominal) of the worlds archaeological sites, historical buildings and monuments can be found on the beds of these river valleys. much these sites inc lude sacred buildings such as churches, temples and their burial sites, which are areas of high sentimental values to the local inhabitants. Such heritage sites could be incapacitated forever when a reservoir is made and the site is inundated with water. In the past, no such steps were taken in these dam projects to explore, deliver or save any of the local heritages. Recently, special measures have been taken in account for building of some projects. They have included adjacent guidelinesIntensive archaeological investigations at the sites believed to have traces by antediluvian patriarch civilisations, sooner dam or a reservoir constructions proceeds.Relocation of burial sites with proper respect and dignity.Redesigning the structure of the dam, to minimise the loss of heritage site.The dismantling, relocation and re-erection of ancient monuments to preserve the interests of localsSafety and the maintenance of the damIn 1925, the two dams failed causing a flood that swamped a village in North Wales called Dolgarrog, this flood killed 16 people. The contingency was initially started when the Eigiau Dam, a small gravity dam failed. The released water from the reservoir of the broken dam flooded downstream and overtopped the reservoir of Coedty Dam which was an embankment dam the high pressure of water inside the reservoir forced this dam to fail. Thus, releasing the huge volume of water that that swapped Dolgarrog and killed people.This disaster at Dolgarrog led the British government to pass the Reservoirs (Safety Provisions) Act in 1930 that introduced laws on the base hit of the reservoirs. This act has been updated, and the current one is known as the Reservoirs Act, 1975. According to this acts all the dams in the United Kingdom that can hold at least 25,000 cubic metres of water would be maintained and looked aft(prenominal) to ensure the safety of the general public. Under the Act, there is a usually Panel (or group) of civil engineers who are r esponsible for checking the safety and maintenance of these reservoirs and their dams. These are also known as Panel Engineers, and to qualify, these panel engineers need to be well qualified and vastly experienced in dam and reservoirs safety maintenance. After 10 years every actual reservoir is soundly checked that if they meet all their safety requirements. Panel Engineers are also required to actively participate with the new construction of dams and reservoirs, or if the existing reservoirs needs to be repaired and changed sinlessly. According to this act reservoir owners are de jure responsible for the safety and the maintenance of their reservoirs, dams. These dam owners are forced to employ suitably qualified civil engineers to make periodic checks on safety of the dam during the intervals between the Panel Engineers inspections.Safety check by EngineersSome of the safety checks are listed belowVisual inspections An important part of a reservoir safety check is visual i nspections. Unusual features like cracks on the surface of a dam may reveal important clues about the condition of the internal body of the dam which may not be visible to the naked eye of the inspector.On embankment dams, the civil engineers always look for hollows, bulges cracks and leaks on the outer face and on the upstream face of the dam, when the water is low. These features could possible indicate number of factors like the dam becoming more unstable, and that if there is a possibility that, with time, the portion of the slope could collapse, just like a landslide or the dam could crumble down on its own weight. Hollows on the dam can also indicate that floodwater has been luxuriant the dam and slowly eroding the downstream slope. Engineers also look through or underneath the dam for any signs of water leaking. Water leaking through the dam can erode away the material inside the dam gradually creating a large cavity. This may lead to the collapse of the cavity itself which may reduce the stableness of the dam. If the water is leaking under the dam or near the foot it can be a problem in its foundations in this case the entire dam needs to be hypothesize as the foundations get mushy and dam can collapse any second. Concrete dams have inspection galleries theses are tunnels running through the entire dams. These galleries just between 5-6 feet high just about big enough for a person to walk through. This helps engineers as the can inspect the conditions of the dam both inside and outside. The concrete surface is checked for signs of any wearing away, deterioration, faulting or moulding. The engineers also look for the stability of the dam and look for any signs that could suggest that the dam or sections of it are moving. Checks are also made for any leaks on every part of the dam. Inspector checks the dam for all types of conditions, water pipes, valves and floodgates and even the quality of the water. The valves and gates are operated and greased on a regular basis to check that they work and would work when required.Monitoring behaviour- Although dams look like a solid structure, they generally do move under the forces of nature, and which may cause water to seep through tiny pores in the structure. The height of an embankment dam actually reduced due to its weight over the years. Reduction of the height of dam is called settlement. A reservoir filled with water pushes a dam downstream a little and tries to make it slant and slide on its foundation. The structure of the dams is mostly made out of metal and concrete which may contract and expand the dam as the temperature changes throughout the year. Civil engineers have to often ensure the stability of dams by designing dams that can minimise water seepage and could withstand the effects of natural forces. Changes in the behaviour of a dam does not occur overnight, they occur slowly, and gradually so these changes cannot be notice by naked eye so the dam needs to be monito red regularly using scientific instruments that can measure changes at very small values . This way any unclaimed behaviour can be detected in early stages before it causes a major structural problem. Some instruments are permanently fitted in dams, while others are generally taken to the site to make measurements.These are some the things that are monitored-Seepage or leakage- A crack in a dam can indicate there would be increase leakage or seepage. In embankment dams, it could indicate that there is internal erosion of the fill material is taking place.Settlement- Optical instruments are used to measures levels on the crest of an embankment dam, to check if the height of the dam is reduced. If a crest appears to settle it can be a warning of problem a occurring within the body of the dam. The crest levels are generally designed to be of a certain height or above the normal full reservoir level. This ensures that the dam is not overtopped if in case it is flooded by spare floodwa ter or by waves on windy days.Tilting -Pendulums are installed in the vertically shafts of the dam to monitor any tilting in the damConsidering floods Dams are usually designed to hold back and collect water that flows into the valley behind it in the reservoirs dams are also used to control the amount of water that passes out through it. Hydrologists are used to estimate the quantity and the quality of water that flows into a reservoir. Civil engineers use this information to find a location and plan the appropriate height of the dam. The dam needs to be of certain height, high enough to ensure that it will not be overflow excess flood water, unless it is designed to do so via tunnels or spillways. Accidental over toppling of water could damage the spot downstream and in worse can be fatal or it could wash away part of the downstream side of an embankment dam which may affect the stability of the dam and it could collapse. These events can form catastrophic floods, as the water i s released from the reservoir, could cause death and destruction to the people who live downstream. Floodwater is usually passed through a reservoir using a spillway, tunnels or safety canals safely. If people and property are at risk, spillways are opened safely so that they could pass the huge amounts of flood water controllably. Hydrologists often estimate the size and the endangerment of the flood by studying past rainfall records for the area and considering modern climate changes or the sudden change in the topography e.g. a large slope formed due to a landslide. They use this information to design new, better, efficient, spillways and also check the existing ones. Often, small-scale models are created to check the design.Checking for earthquakes- all year there are more than 200 earthquakes are detected just alone in Britain. The majority of them are extremely small and have very small value on the Richter scale, but after regular intervals of every eight years at least a order 5 earthquake on Richter scale occurs. Luckily Magnitude 6 earthquake is about the largest and biggest that could ever occur in Britain, but the odds of that happening is very small or even negligible. A Magnitude 6 earthquake can easily damage structures that are poorly constructed, have weak foundations or that have not been designed to worry earthquake shocks.If a dam fails during an earthquake it can be very serious, because the water released from the reservoir could cause havoc and severe flooding downstream. Due to this reason, new and existing dams in Britain are checked that if they could absorb the shocks of an earthquakes.There are a few handful dams in Britain which are believed to have been damaged or have been severely affected by earthquakes. The most important case was found in 1957 when the Black domiciliate Dam, in Leicestershire, was severely affected by a Magnitude 5.3 earthquake. tithe tremors of this earthquake caused heavy coping stones to shift and cr acks and crevices appeared on the faces of this gravity dam which was constructed from concrete and masonry.

A Introduction To Satellite Television

A Introduction To orbiter TelevisionSatellite video recording first the consumer market in the early 1990s. distributees made for the average house were expensive and took up a lot of space in the garden. I n the first few years of satellite TV b bely the wealthiest, or more die-hard fans of television, would go to the trouble of buying and fit up a satellite discus antenna. Satellite television was to a fault a lot harder to get than cable or institutionalize TV.In the indue day you see satellite dishes on the rooftops of most homeowners in the UK and and so the rest of the western orb. The major satellite TV companies are get more and more people to buy their product with promises of films, sports and especially countersign from some the world. The advancement into broad(prenominal)-definition televisions and being able to get a heights definition satellite betoken has made it even more prominent.Satellite Television gives us many solutions to the riddles that come with spread out TV and, although non perfect itself, is now the main way to view television.In its basal form satellite television is a lot like broadcast television. They are both a wireless establishment for delivering television computer programing to a informants house. And they both use satellite post to pass on programing via a radio contract.Using powerful antennas broadcast stations disseminate radio waves to the area surrounding them. The viewers, however, pick up the preindication with a oft modester antenna. Broadcast television works ticket it that has one massive drawback, which is range. When a broadcast antenna shoots break a radio token it is shot out in a straight parameter. To scram these signals you have to be in the direct line of sight of the antenna. If you are not the signal may become distorted. exquisite obstacles such as trees or small buildings should not be a problem but bigger obstacles, such as planet earth, would come a probl em. If you glowted a broadcast signal over a perfectly flat surface you would be able to pick up a signal thousands of miles away from the source. However in the real world the curvature of the planet distorts and blocks the signal sent out from the satellite, to get a perfect signal you would have to be close to the antenna with no obstacles in in the midst of.The Satellite TV SolutionSatellite TV solves this problem by transmitting signal from satellites orbiting the Earth. Because these satellites are so high in the sky it means there are a lot more customers in range and line of sight. Satellite TV systems transmit and receive radio signals using specialized antennas called satellite dishes.Diagram of how Satellite TV works.When the satellites that broadcast these radio signals are sent up in to space they are all sent up in fixed orbit. This means that they all stay in one place in the sky relative to the Earth.Some factsEvery satellite is launched into space at 7000mphEach one reaches about 22,200 miles above the Earth.When the satellite is this high and mournful at such a speed it will revolve around the Earth once every 24 hours, keeping it in the equivalent position above the Earth giving constant signal to the viewer with uninterrupted signals.The Components of Satellite TVIn a DTH (direct to home) or DBS (direct broadcasting) satellite system there are five major components. These are the programming source, the broadcast cracker, the satellite, the satellite dish and the pass catcher.Programming source this is where the channels that get out the programmes are based. This is where the satellite TV canrs go to pay other companies (for sample MTV or Nickelodeon) for the right to broadcast there programmes through with(predicate) their satellites.Broadcast substance The broadcast internality is central part of the system. In the broadcast center the people who are providing the TV to the viwers at home receive signals from unlike progra mming sources and then beam a broadcast signal to satellites to geosynchronous orbit.Satellites The satellites in space receive the signal sent from the broadcast center and beam them back down to Earth.Dish The viewer then picks up this rebroadcasted signal and the satellite dish passes it onto the receiver in the house.Receiver all(prenominal) the receiver then has to is process the signal and pass it on to a mensuration TV.This is a very hot system to providing a good look signal to a large area. It has very picture demonstrate and sound quality with hundreds of channels and the service is ready to use in rural and urban areas and provides a lot of access to digital and high definition programming. However satellite is not without its drawbacks. It can be rather expensive to buy all the equipment at the outset (satellite dish and receiver etc) and if you want to access satellite television in multiple suite in your home be prepared for the extra cost. As good as this s atellite television can be subject to extreme weather conditions.Satellite TV signalsSatellites signals have a very pine way to travel before they appear on your TV screen. Because of this and because they ascertain very high-quality digital data it would be near impossible to transmit them without compression. Compression is defined, in this case, as removing all unnecessary or repeated information. later the signal is transmitted it is reconstructed.Satellite TV has to use a very unique type of video file compression rule-governedize by the Moving Pictures Experts Group or MPEG for short. This allows the provider to successfully transmit significantly more channels than without using this method of compression.MPEG normals exist to pull ahead interoperability among your computer, televisionand hand held video and audio devices. These MPEG standards areMPEG-1 this is the original standard. It is use for encode and decoding streaming video and audio files.MPEG-2 this standa rd compresses files which are used and transmitted for a high quality of video and is the standard for digital television.MPEG-4 the function of this standard is to compress high definition video onto a smaller scale so you can stream it to computers, mobile phones and PDAs.MPEG-21 This standard basically interprets digital content so that the media plays flawlessly no social function what machine it is, what language it is in or the user conditions. It is also referred as the Multimedia Framework.Most satellite TV providers used to use the MPEG-2 standard to compress their signals but changed to the MPEG-4 standard of compression. This is because MPEG-4 is more efficient at encode can provide a much greater bandwidth than MPEG-2. However MPEG-2 assuage remains the official standard for digital television. This is because it is more able to crush static images, like those you would see in such programmes like lambast shows or newscasts whereas MPEG-4 is better at analysing movi ng, dynamic images. MPEG-4 can do this through such things as spatial1and temporal2compression. This is how satellite TV manages to provide such a high quality picture of fast-moving objects on the screen, that are always moving, like in a football game.Satellite DishWhen the signal reaches the viewers house it is captured by the satellite dish. The satellite dish is made up of an aparabolic (bowl- organized) surface and a central feed horn. The signal passes through the horn and then the dish focuses the signal into a narrow beam.This receiving dish works in the exact opposite way to the vector as it cant transmit information, it can only receive it. The dish acts just like a concave mirror in that the shape of the dish reflects the signal inward onto a position point just like a concave mirror focuses light onto a particular point.The dishes feed horn feeds the signal on to the receiving equipment, and if there hasnt been any obstacles between the satellite and the dish there s hould be a perfect signal coming into the viewers receiver (unless the weather is bad). Before the dish sends the signal to the viewers receiver it amplifies and filters the signal using LNB, or low mental disturbance blockdown converter. After this the LNB passes the amplified, filtered signal to inside the house.sometimes, in some systems, the dish postulate to pick up a signal from two different satellites. Sometimes this may be possible but when it isnt it may compromise the quality of the signal because the dish cannot be aimed at both of the satellites at the equivalent time so either one or both of the signals would be distorted.Satellite ReceiverAt the end of the satellite TV system is the receiver. It has four important jobsIt takes the encrypted signal and de-scrambles itIt takes the digital MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 signal and changes them into an analogue signal so the standard television can recognizeIt also has to sort out the individualAs well as this it keeps the providers provide up to date with the payments the viewer owes the provider of the satellite television.ConclusionAfter closely studying satellite television and how it works it is clear to me that is much better and more practical then the older normal broadcast television. This is because of the greater range and line of sight that satellites have got rather than the regular antennas which are impeded by the curvature of the earth and even small obstacles. Although satellite television does have some drawbacks I would say it is in spades the way forward in television broadcasting and has already intimately taken over the market.

Eyewitness Testimony In Children

Eyewitness Testimony In ChildrenMemory is non sure store move be altered and adjusted. Memory is stored in the wizard just like files stored in a cabinet, you store it, save it and hence later on retrieve and more or less snips even alter and fall in it. In doing so that changes the original data that was first gear stored. Over snip memory fades and becomes distorted, trauma and former(a) characters in life back end causal agency the way we store memory to become faulty. So when foc utilise on witnesses, almost time our memory depart not relay jog cultivation due to different cues, questioning, and trauma and so forth, which inducts eyewitness even harder to trust on. Although memory is highly unreliable and hence affects the validity of eyewitness it is be quiet applied in the shepherds crook justice body.Jurors atomic number 18 significantly inclined to regard and follow eyewitness severalize this is quite unnerving because the culpable justice system, l aboratory studies and field studies supports the conclusion that eyewitnesses regularly make errors. A vast enumerate of studies take away found that eyewitness mis denominations argon the to the highest degree frequent cause of defectiveful convictions and by using forensic deoxyribonucleic acid testing, they grow found that this swallow accounted for more convictions of innocent persons than all other factors combined (Innocence Project, 2009 Wells, Memon, Penrod, 2006).Social scientists and members of the legal profession hold back turned their worry to whether they can rely on the ability of young electric s exciterren to provide entire eyewitness testimony. They overhear focused on many cases relying on evidence provided by child witnesses, roughly of these cases argon those of physical or versed holler. These hold in protagonisted bring to the front issues relating to the true statement and reliability of such(prenominal) eyewitness reports (Ceci Bruck, 1 993). As a result there has been a related plus of scientific studies of childrens eyewitness competences, with results indicating that very young children perform significantly worse than younger adults. In line-up identification studies, young children perform at a similar level to young adults when the line-up wassailed contains the actual culprit further localize more stupid identifications when it does not (Pozzulo Lindsay, 1998).There argon number of reasons croup wherefore a child allow for provide more ill-judged eyewitness entropy, some of these reason are misleading suggestions by the discourseer, foolish memories, versed or some other form of offense, the carriage of person in leave such as resembling patrol, attention or lies. Many things whitethorn render the allegations make by children as unreliable.First, Researchers rely that children make the assumption that an adult would not provide the task if the bell ringer was not present, so when th e children are presented with the line-up array it suggests to the children that the adult expects them to choose psyche from the line-up. and so the children so will choose someone to avoid each disappointing the adult and at the corresponding time avoiding to admit to doubt, or they whitethorn even choose someone that looks similar to the butt end they have seen before. They have as well as noted that young children may feel pressured to make identification regardless of whether the perpetrator is in fact recognised at all. According to (Davies 1996) the reason children turn towards choosing in identification line-ups is due to odor pressured or creation required to react to questions regardless to the fact if the target is present or abstracted. This is also supported by the study by Pozzulo and Lindsay (1997), and they noted that due to the fact that adults are seen as an authority project or a person to be respected and of status, children fail to advance that I do not know is an available option as a response and so they are less inclined to respond using I do not know and so may be less likely to use it in comparison with adults, whereas adults may not feel that pressure of having another adult present and will not feel that they have done something wrong by admitting that they are not certain of the target.As mentioned before it is acknowledged that there is a growing number of case studies evidently reveal that mistaken identifications make by child witnesses contribute to a failure to get hold of justice. This can be seen in many examples such as, Gene Bibbins served 15 years of a life objurgate afterwards being convicted based in the beginning on a mistaken identification make by a 13-year-old victim Jimmy Ray Bromgard served 14 years of a 40-year doom based on a mistaken identification made by an 8-year-old victim Danny Brown served 18 years of a life sentence after being convicted based on a mistaken identification made by a 6-year-old eyewitness and Larry Youngblood served 9 years of a 10-year sentence based on a mistaken identification made by a 10-year-old victim. DNA evidence has afterwards proven the honor of all these persons. So after seeing all these false identifications and mistakenly accused persons it is unclear as to why the criminal justice system continues to rely on this method.Another reason why young childrens memory depend back is unreliable is that they lack some sort of understanding of what information needs to be provided in response to questions that are open-ended (Saywitz Snyder, 1996).In the UK a huge number of line-up identifications involving children are carried out by natural law officers wearing akin. Researchers carried out a study examining the possibility that wearing a uniform contributes an authority figure cue that affects a childs ability in some way to make blameless eyewitness identifications. They carried out a study where sixty participants aged 9-10 ye ars old would witness a staged crime and were later on be asked to identify the criminal from a line-up. They used four conditions in order to do so, this was a 2 (2) (uniform present vs. absent) - two (2) (target present vs. absent) design. They found that children in the uniform present conditions made significantly more choices than children in the uniform absent conditions. More significantly they found that in the presence of a uniform, children made more significant false identifications in target-absent line-ups. This thereof suggests that the children experienced uncertainty if the target was absent from the line-up and this may be because they were looking to some authority figure to somehow ensure them that the possibility of the burglar being present was high, but this uncertainty was not expressed when the line-up administrator wore a uniform because the that authority figure was present, leading to an increase in false identifications.It was also found that children f eel that they are helping the police, and in the eyes of children this will be deemed as something highly meaning(a) and so they will not want to disappoint them in any way. They also assume that the police may have already arrested the guilty persons and need some last confirmation to be able to convict them (informational influence cf. Steblay, 1997). Therefore in some way they have relied on the police and believe that no mistake was made. The heightened levels of uncertainty and tense up in the target-absent condition could be interpreted as that they may be failing to make a proper the identification as there was nobody who they may have been assisting such as the police or an adult and at the same time found no one who matched their memory of the target. Trying to come out knowledgeable they would then have lowered their identification threshold and therefore wrongly identify someone.Another point looked at on why children give false recollections can be looked at in term s of sexual abuse and the relation between stress and the childrens memory when asked to take the traumatic core. First, it may be that children made false accusations from the beginning and was mindful of it all along. If that was the case then this implies that they did not form false memories, strange what many researchers would have claimed (Ceci Bruck, 1993). Instead, the children would have been lying to please the adults or may have even been trying to seek attention. It was found that where they may have promoted lies and not false memories the children who later on, as adults, withdrew their claims. So now inferences are big because these withdrawals of their claims would mean that childrens memory flexibility was not as immense as were the adult social pressures applied to the children. There were however some of the children who still held to their original charges of child sexual abuse. As well, for those who may have indeed experienced a sexual or physical traumat izing event their memory may become terribly inaccurate from the stress they had experienced, stress causes a person to see things and recall them in many incorrect slipway. Even if left to calm down for sometimes or some weeks the memory can be even more lost to the correct information, in that the child can suppress the memories and recall them in ways to make them feel better or to remove the guilt and anguish caused by the event.Recent research by (Alexander et al., 2005 Widom Morris, 1997) points out that men are more likely than women to define certain acts of child sexual abuse as not abusive and have less accurate memories for child sexual abuse experiences, they usually make the ordeal less important than it really or distorting what happenedResearchers assume that children may typically reveal sexual abuse to their mothers (Berliner Conte, 1995), and that the person who may be sexually abusing or ill-use the child may be known to the child (Finkelhor, 1984), and that because the crimes and abuses may not be reported promptly (Goodman et al., 1992 Goodman-Brown, Edelstein, Goodman, Jones, Gordon, 2003), it can be argued that mothers may have led the children to make a false report, or the children and/or mothers may have had concealed intentions for making the accusations, and that the childs memory may have been either distorted, trained, or become faded with time. It was that many prosecutors have reported that such defences are often used in child sexual abuse cases (Goodman, Quas, Bulkley, Shapiro, 1999). They argue that children do not always disclose abuse readily, may at times require some leading questions to tell accurately and transactly what happened, which in doing so may bring about false reports as to what may have truly happened and also leading the children into mentation that it happened in the way that the questions were asked and they may even withdraw their claims even if they were unbent (Malloy, Quas Lyon, in press Say witz, Goodman, Nicholas, Moan, 1991 Summit, 1983). They have also found that it is more surd to mislead children to report negative or events related to abuse than imperative or events that is not related to abuse, but some children at times may even consent to false negative, personal experiences.It has been well-known that the younger the children, the more likely it is for them to report false information (Bruck Ceci, 1999 Howe, 2000). For instance, if after witnessing an event young children are given misinformation about it (e.g., Do you remember when the fix gave you a candy?), their reports of the event would be more likely to intromit the (mis)information that the doctor gave them candy when, in fact, the doctor did not. Clinicians and researchers have observed that some very young children are capable of providing accurate reports of events with the use indicative questioning, whereas some older children are not able to do so (Baxter, 1990 Bruck Ceci, 1999 Geddie, F radin, Beer, 2000).In 2004 Bruck and Melnyk published a review of the literature on man-to-man differences in suggestibility. Out of 69 studies they looked for evidence of relationships between three categories of doable predictors one which is demographic (socioeconomic status and sex), secondly the other is Cognitive (intelligence, language, memory, surmisal of mind, executive functioning, distractibility, and creativity), and thirdly, Psycho-social (social engagement, self-concept/self-efficacy, stress/emotional arousal/state anxiety, maternal appendix styles, parent-child relationship, parenting styles, temperament, and mental health). No relationship with suggestibility for some variables could be found but for others, the results were inconsistent. The predictors which showed the likely appeared to be that of the parent-child relationship, language ability, creativity, self-concept/self-efficacy, and maternal romantic attachment. Children who were conquerable to being i mpressionable were more creative and had less superior language skills (Clarke-Stewart et al., 2004), insufficient self-concept or self efficacy (Davis Bottoms, 2002), less supportive relationships with parents, either fathers or mothers (Clarke-Stewart et al., 2004), and mothers who were attached in their romantic relationships in an insecure manner (Goodman, Quas, Batterman-Faunce, Riddlesberger, Kuhn, 1997 Quas et al., 1999). variant studies were done to test and improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony in children as well as correct memory recall. One of these tests is the resultant Report study (ERT), this is a training function intended to help the improvement of the memory recall of children and at the same time to land suggestibility. To test this efficiency of the training outgrowth they carried out a study. In the study fifty-eight (58) children took part in two forensically significant mold events. After two weeks, the children received (ERT) or participated in control procedures, after that they were given a memory interview. The results pointed out that the Event Report culture procedure decreased suggestibility to questions related to abuse in preschoolers their responses were greatly accurate and the difference in age was removed. (ERT) procedure did not raise the amount of information that preschoolers provided to open-ended questions. However, using the Event Report Training procedure 32% more information was reported by 7 to 8-year-olds which include a 32% enhancement in actions, without an associated raise in wrong information. (John Wiley Sons, Ltd. 2009)Another focus on improving accuracy is a autobiography style approach. A wide-ranging study to date of 3 9 year old children narrative development, it observed over a constant of gravitation narratives, and used diverse techniques of analysis of narrative structure, (Peterson and McCabe 1983) acknowledged three common narrative styles in 4-year-old children. The most comm on being a leaping frog pattern in which children jump from one particular bluster to another, thereby excluding important aspects. An important aim of Event Report Training is to bring out intricate chronological narratives in preference to leap-frog narratives.Researchers have authentic a number of structured interviews in order to achieve accurate memory reports from children in forensic situations. One of these interviews is The cognitive interview (CI) which relies on techniques to assist in retrieval and this consists of reporting everything, temporal recall and reverse order recall, context reinstatement and recall of the event from different viewpoints of the stack involved in the event (Geiselman, Fisher, MacKinnon, Holland, 1985).Another structured interview procedure for children is Narrative Elaboration (NE), which relies on the grouping methods to improve the narratives of children. In this, researchers first teach the children how to recall an event by organizing information into specific categories, they then instruct children about the appropriate information that is involved in complete recall of that particular category (Camparo, Wagner, Saywitz, 2001 Saywitz Synder, 1996 Saywitz, Snyder Lamphear, 1996).Afterwards, the children are given cue tease to remind them to explain each group. A third procedure developed by researchers at the National Institute of Child Health and humans Development (NICHD Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin, Hershkowitz, Orbach, 2000) was to improve the childrens event reports while at the same time fortifying the forensic investigators interviewing skills. The NICHD protocol lets the child of interview rules which they are allowed to say I do not know. This procedure builds an understanding and supplies the children with practice in describing novel events and separating precise instances of an event recurring. In addition, the procedure uses related cueing whereby after a child-generated material is given the inter viewer then asks specific questions.It was found in two investigations that 8 to 10 years old children showed a significant resist in the false response to misleading questions after being interviewed using the Cognitive interview (Memon, Holley, Wark, Bull, Kohnken, 1996 Milne Bull, 2003).In general, the evidence from previous research that children are more likely to choose from a line-up is relatively strong, although the underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Children may be more vulnerable to any perceived social and environmental demands to choose, or they may have a less sophisticated understanding of the purposes of an identification test and the potential consequences of their decision (Brewer, Weber, Semmler, 2005). In any case, studies have shown that these difficulties are exacerbated in the presence of a uniform line-up administrator. As well, leading questions are problematic because it can cause the children to rely on the adults for information or ma y think that by the way the question was phrased they expect a particular answer. It is hence, important that such methods are limited in order to improve the accuracy of child eyewitnesses and increase confidence that the identifications made are correct.